Introduction

In this Project I will cover all the six aspects given starting with politics, technology, society and lifestyle, economy, mentality and finally finishing with geography. In each aspect we are talking about a especifically idea between the 18th and 19th century. Depending on the aspect you are in, it will explain you different historical events that occured in our country or even continent long time ago. Let´s  hope you like it!

Politics

The first event I have chosen is the Spanish War of Succession that took place in all Europe in 1701. It started in 1701 and ended in 1714. The Spanish War of Succession was a conflict that arose out of the dispute succession to the throne of Spain following the death of the childless of Charles II, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs. In and effort to regulate the impending succession to which there were three principals such as England, the Dutch Republic and France that in October 1698 signed the First Treaty of Partition agreeing that on the death of the king, Charles II Prince Joseph Ferdinand will be son the elector of Bavaria and should inherit Spain from the king, the Spanish Netherlands and all the Spanish colonies. England, Holand, Portugal and finally the Austrian empire declared war to France and also to Spain. These was the beginning of the Spanish War of Succession. As I have said before, it took place in Spain and later in the rest of Europe. In 1713, the Utrecht´s treaty ended this war between several countries in Europe and proclaimed to Phillip V as the king of Spain.

Later in 1707, the United Kingdom of Britain was formed. It was formed when England and Scotland united their paliaments. Both countries have shared their monarchy since 1603 when king James VI of Scotland became king James I of England. At this period in time Wales was also considered a part of England. It wasn´t until 1800 that Ireland joined the union in 1922 what is now called the Republic of Ireland. Currently the UK consists of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and nowadays the oficial name of the UK is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.  

The third historical event I have chosen is the Declaration of Independence in 1776. It is when an armed conflict between bands of American colonists and British soldiers began in April 1775, the Americans were ostensibly fighting only for their rights as subjects of the British crown. By the following summer, the movement for Independence from Britain had grown, and delegates of the Continental Congress were faced with a vote on the issue. In mid-june in 1776, a five man committee including Thomas Jefferson, John Adams and Benjamin Franklin was tasked with drafting a formal statement of the colonies intentions. The Congress formally adopted the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson in Philadelphia the 4th of July a date which nowadays it is celebrated in the United States of America.

- http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/declaration-of-independence

Watching this short video of the Declaration of Independence you will see how everything worked till these document was signed the 4th of July in 1776.

The fourth historical event that I have chosen is when Napoleón transforms the Consulate of France into an empire. The First French Empire, commonly known as the French Empire or the Napoleonic Empire or simply as The Empire, covers the period of the domination of France and of much of continental Europe by Napoleon I of France. Constitutionally, it refers to the period of 1804 to 1814, from the Consulate to the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in the history of the French state, with a coda in the Hundred Days of 1815. Later it is the Congress of Vienna that lasts one year from 1814 to 1815.

In 1815 the Congress of Vienna ends, it only lasted one year. The basic principles of the Congress of Vienna are firstly when Napoleón abdicates, the state minister of Austria, Metternich summons the powers of Europe to Vienna in 1814. The objectives are clear, lets try to find peace and stability they always said that there is always a better solution than a war. Lets take revenge on the French and make them pay and compensate us. The three basic princìpalities of the Congress of Vienna were to supress liberalis, to restore the legitimate rulers back in the positions and finally to reduce the territory of France.

I would like to finish this part of politics of my own project with the liberal revolutions in Europe in 1848. At the beginning shortly after the New Year in 1848, Europe exploted into revolution. From many places in Europe such as Paris to Frankfurt to Budapest to Naples, liberal protesters rose up against the conservative establishment. Instead the moderate liberals such as the lawyers, doctors, merchants, the bourgeoisie and so on began punishing actively for extension of suffrage. These revolutions were the most widespread in the history of Europe. They directly affected to France, Germany, Prussia, the Austrian Empire and several italian states such as Moldavia and Wallacia. They also affected Switzerland, Denmark, England, Spain and Belgium. All of the european states were affected but Russia wasn´t.  Here in this map you will see how in terms of geography Europe was in 1848.

Technology

The inventions of the 18th and 19th century

During the 18th and 19th century, several important inventors created new technological and scientifical objects such as the electromagnet, the battery, the tin can, the raincoat, the thermometer and so on that had a great effect in society and also most of them in economy. In this project I have decided to describe five of the inventions of the 18th century and another five of them of the 19th century. In the 19th century I have decided to choose William Sturgeon, Alessandro Volta, Humphry Davy, Peter Durand and Charles Macintosh. In the 18th century I decided to choose Gabriel Fahrenheit, Bartolomeo Cristofori, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, Benjamin Franklin and finally John Kay. I will start explaining the inventions of the 19th century and later I will finish explaining the ones of the 18th century.

In the 19th century, William Sturgeon, a british electrical engineer and physicist that developed the first electromagnet which was a magnet created when electricity flows through a conductor. The magnectic fields goes around the conductor. The typical way electromagnets are built is to wrap many coils of wire around a ferromagnetic core which is usually made of iron. He invented the electromagnet in 1825, In the same year he also invented the first practical English electric motor.

In the same century, Alessandro Volta, an italian physic, chemist and Pioneer of electricity and power invented the batteryin the 1800. He also developed the Voltaire pile and discovered the first method that generated the electricity. The Voltaire pile was the first electrical battery that could continuously provide an electrical current to a circuit. It basically was a bettery cell that consisted in several metal disks, each one made of one of two dissimiliar metals arranged in alternating series and separated by pads with an electrolyte.

Additionally, Sir Humphry Davy was an english chemist that was very famous because he invented the first electricity light in 1809. Soon after the italian physicist Alessandro Volta invented the electric pile, an early type of battery in 1800, Davy rushed into this new field and he realized that the production of electricity depended on a chemical reaction taking place. Humphry Davy became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1803 and served as its president from 1820 to 1827, seven years. He also created the baronet in 1818, among many, that he much enjoyed.

In 1810, Peter Durand, a British merchant made an impact on food preservation with his 1810 patenting of the tin can. In 1813, John Hall and Bryan Dorkin opened the first comercial canning Factory in England. Due to this great invention, it had a great effect in the economy. Later in 1846, Henry Evans invented a machine that could manufacture tin cans at a rate of sixty per hour. It was a significant increase over the previous rate of only six per hour. The first tin cans were so thick they had to be hammered open. As cans became thinner, it became posible to invent dedicated can openers. In 1858, Ezra Warner of Waterbury patented the first can opener. It was very useful for the military of the U.S that they used it during the Civil War.

Finally, the last inventor of the 19th century is Charles Macintosh, who was a Scottish chemist and was the inventor of the waterproof fabrics in 1823. He patented a method for making waterproof garments by using rubber disolved in coal-tar naphtha for cementing two pieces of cloth together. The now famous raincoat was named after it´s own inventor, Charles Macintosh. Macintosh raincoats were first made using the methods developed by Charles Macintosh.

We have already finish with the inventions and inventors of the 19th century. Now we will see the other inventions of the 18th century such as Gabriel Fahrenheit, Bartolomeo Cristofori, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, Benjamin Franklin and John Kay.

They were also very important because they made a great impact and effect in society and in the economy´s country.

In the 18th century, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit was a German phisicist, engineer and glass blower that invented in 1709 the first alcohol thermometer and later in 1724 he invented the mercury thermometer. He is basically best known for inventing the mercury-in-glass thermometer and also for developing a temperatura scale now named after him. Gabriel Fahrenheit was also best known for inventing the Fahrenheit hydromometer.

In the same century, Bartolomeo Cristofori who was an italian maker of musical instruments that is regarded as the inventor of the piano in 1709. He was credited with the invention of the piano called in his time gravicembalo piano e forte or even harpsichord that plays soft and loud. The name refers to the piano´s ability to change loudness according to the amount of preassure, a quality foreign to the harpsichord.

The third inventor of these century was Anton Van Leeuwenhoek who was a Dutch microscopist who was the first to observe bacteria and protozoa in a microscopic. This observation helped lay the foundations for the sciences of bacteriology and protozoology. He invented the first practical microscope because he wanted to see and describe how the bacteria look like.

Benjamin Franklin developed the lightning rods in 1750. A lightning rod  is very simple, it is a pointed metal rod attached to the roof of a building normally or even of your house. It connects a huge place of copper or aluminum wire that is also an inch or so in diameter. The wire is connected to a conductive grid burried in the ground nearby. The system has the ability to handle the enormous electrical current related with the strike. If the strike contracts a material that isn´t a good conductor the material will suffer a big damage. The lightning rod system that invented years ago Benjamin Franklin is an excellent conductor that allows the current to flow to the gorund without causing any damage in the surface area.

Finally we are going to finish with John Kay in 1733 who invented the flying shuttle, an improvement to looms that enabled weavers to weave faster tan they did. The original shutter contained bobin on to which the weft yarn was wound. It was normally pushed from one side of the warp to the other side of the hand. Large looms were needed also two weavers to throw the shuttle. The flying shuttle was thrown by a leaver that could be operated by one weaver.

Society and lifestyle

The Industrial Revolution, 1760 to 1840

The Industrial Revolution, began in the 18th century Britain, it was a complex social and economical modernization with significant changes in all fields of economical life (in industry, in agriculture, in infrastructure and urban areas) and had it´s great effects on society. Basically, the Industrial Revolution means a shift from using hand tools to more power machines, from home to the factory, from the country to the city, from human or animal power to engines powered by fossil fuels such as coal but later oil. The Industrial Revolution changes where we live, how we work, what we wear, what we eat, what we do for fun, how we are educated, how long we live and so on. 
In that period of time people began to believe in science and the force of technology. The Enlightenment, known also as the Age of Reason and also including the interest in progress and better lives for people also helped it. The Industrial Revolution represented as IR it began in agriculture because the English landowners began buying up much of the lands and began to improve the farming methods. Landowners began to try new agricultural methods like for example new crop rotation or they even came up with the idea of the inventions. If you work with machines you will have less need to have more workers. This forced to the farmers to to give up farming and move up to the cities. The hole story began in England with the colonization because there was more capital to invest in mass production. The British colonies were excellent in markets and the trade with other countries. England was a very well-workeed island. Additionaly with the help of the stable government and the lack of internal trade barries which means that there is one island and a country.

This old photo represents the smokestacks in Pittsburgh which is located near Pennsylvania in 1890s.
While time passed, in history it occur a very big difference between the pre-industrial societies and later the industrial societies. For example in the pre-industrial society people used in the factory the the hand tools, and with this I mean that people did not had machines to do their work. instead later in the industrial society the people that worked in the factory they used to work with machines. The work in the pre-industrial societies took place at home, people used to work at home while then in the industrial society they used to go to work to the industries. In the pre-industrial societies people used to live in the countryside although in the industrial societies they used to go to work to the city. Finally to conclude, in the pre-industrial societies the energy power the people used in their lives was the human or animal power and in the industrial societies they used the steam. There was such a big difference  between them!

Pre-industrial societies

                                                     

                                                              Industrial society

The quality of life of the low classes in industrial societies

The workers in that period of time did not have many labour chances against the factory owners. They did have to work more hours for less money. They did not have the opportunity to change their situation because they did not have political rights. In that time they worked aproxiamtely 10-14 hours, 6 days a week without any break or vacation. Due to this reason workers lost their original rhythm of life: they had to live according to the shifts in the factories and as I have said before they did not have any break or free time either. The workers were not helped a lot by the government. The houses were horrible and provided the residents with poor conditions. Water and air pollution was terrible and most of the cities were not planned yet. The children and women did not have better lives either. Child labour was cheap, secure and free from dangers of other workers. Children worked also a lot of hours and sometimes it was even worser than for the adults. 


- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OF7-vN-aLOM (This video is a short documentary where it explains what is the industrial revolution, all the causes and consequences of it.)

-  http://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution/videos/the-industrial-revolition
(This video also summeries basically what the industrial revolution is, where and where did it occur and so on.)

Economy

What is economy?

Economy is a system of trade and industry by which the wealth of a country is made and used. We can also define the word economy as an economy system in which the government controls the foreign trade of the country. An economy system is to increase a nation´s wealth by government regulation of all the nation´s commercial interests. It is also an entire work of producers and consumers of goods and services in a national community. It basically, moves all our country because it is involved in the imported and exported materials of our country to many others that surround us nowadays. 

In this image it actually represents that they want to obtain as much gold and silver (the first servant, colony seen in the picture) as they can so that they can have a favorable balance of trade and to export more materials than we import, with these steps it will be a great profit. The idea is to bring raw materials (the other servant, colony) from other countries and to export our materials to other countires. Later it will have an incredible imapct in the formation of the American colonies.

This image represents the triangular trade route between England (British goods) and the American colonies (raw materials)  and the slaves. These three points in the map form the triangular trade route of economy.

In this case, the states need to intervene in economy as much as they  can to make sure they sell more than they buy, a positive balance of trade so that they can have a great benefit form it. Before the economy came, in history it existed the mercantilism, which was an economy theory practice in the 16th to 18th century. Before the manufactured goods were produced by cheap raw materials but where did the raw material come from? Colbert said that we should buy the raw materials from the colonies at a very low price and later sell the manufactured products to the colonies at a very high price. He recommended to monopolize trade in your colonies only if it is needed. 

Economy satisfies people´s needs by getting the resources to them. This means economy makes goods from resources to satisfy needs, this was known as production but what does it need? Although it needs resources, labor and a capital such as money, machinery, buildings... The economy agents did the production with the help of these two. The economy agents are the families, the state and the trade companies. Firstly the families because they have their needs and demands while they are working in a company. Apart form this, they also pay taxes to the state. 

Then, the state collects this taxes from the people and does the same with the companies. Finally to conclude, the companies produce supply and pay salaries to people and taxes to the state. These are the three balance of economy, if everything is in balance, economy will work perfectly. 
The economy is divided into three sectors: the primary sector, the secondary sector and finally the tertiary sector.
The primary sector includes the activities that obtain resources from nature like for example crop agriculture basically farming, livestock breeding, forestry or the forest explotation, fishing and finally mining. The negative effects, like for example soil erosion, deforestation and general contamination can be handled by ecological agriculture. The Demographic changes in landscape and the new activities had their great effects on the primary sector.

The secondary sector includes the activities that consist of construction like for example buildings, roads, bridges... everything related to the real infrastructure), also including non-renewable energy, renewable energy, heavy industry, capital goods industry and light industry. 

Finally, the tertiary sector includes activities that do not produce goods but it offers services to the society such as transport, education, health, tourism, administration, cultural activities, trade and so on. They can be public services (managed by the state or even the local communities) or private services (offer services but obtain profit as well). Depending on the function of the activities they can be social (education, health), administrative (processing public and private documents), financial (banks and saving banks), cultural (museums), personal and business services (lawyers and architects), information and communication services (radio, TV, technology), comercial services (trade), transporrt (either by land, river, sea or even air) and tourism (entretainment and relaxation). 

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bouw3MvmrYM (A short mercantilism video)
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oiwvvNMOjCE (A mercantilism video including more details)
- http://study.com/academy/lesson/the-13-colonies-developing-economy-overseas-trade.html (A video of the 13 colonies, the developed economy and the major european trade routes) 

Mentality

The conflict between the Church and the Enlightenment

The period between 1300 and 1600 was a time of great changes in Europe. The Renaissance was a rebirth of learning and the arts, inspired a spirit of curiosity in many fields. Meanwhile, the religious movement known as the Protestant Reformation promped followers to challenge accepted ways of thinking about God's salvation. The Great discoveries made the Western European royal families and the middle class especially rich, which measured the importance and not land. In the meantime, another revolution would change how people viewed the physical world around them: the scientific revolution,it took place from the sixteenth century through the seventeenth century and it was an emergency of modern science during the early modern period where several subjects were developed such as mathematics, astronomy, physics, biology, chemistry and so on. They basically changed the view of society. These were the reasons of the enlightenment but what is enlightenment?

This photo shows an engraving from the 1772 which is an edition of the Encyclopédie where truth is in the top center and it is surrounded by light and shown by the figures to the right of philosophy and reason. In the photo underneath you will see the Encyclopédie that was a very famous book in that period of time where the most importants thinkers of the century wrote the new ideas of the Enlightenment in the 17th century. The encyclopedia also named encyclopédie in french was promoted by two important french thinkers known as Diderot and D´Alembert.

Enlightenment, also known Age of Reason was a movement in the 18th century that took place in all Europe were the scientists and philosophers began to examin all the world through reason also called human intellect rather than spiritual faith and religion. 

During the Enlightenment there were very important thinkers such as Isaac Newton, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, John Locke, Bacon, Rosseau and Descartes. Their ideas touched many aspects of life and society such as politics, economics, science, religion... The word Enlightenment means a time of ilumination because a great group of writers, scientists and artists they actively used to saw the light of reason that was a rational thought. Due to this, they developed several fields in some other subjects such as mathematics, physics, astronomy... They also developed the basic human rights (John Locke) and democracy.

John Locke was an English philosopher whose work lead to the political empiricism and liberalism, he was one of the most important thinkers of the Enlightenment in the 17th century. He defended the basic human rights for every citizen: life, liberty and property. He said we have the right to live (life), live freely (liberty) and possess something (our property). He also agreed that the government should respect and protect these rights if not the citizens have the right to rebel. 

Instead Baron de Montesquieu went further: it is not enough to give power to the people in government. He said that the different branches of government should be separated to ensure liberty and to avoid the tyranny. These powers should control one to each other("checks and balances"). The relationship between governments and citizens and the basic rights of citizens should be written down in a constitution. From the 18th century and the Enlightenment on, people believed in reason( truth could be discovered though reason or logical thinking, in nature (what was natural was also good and reasonable), in happiness (people should seek well-being on earth), in progress (society and humankind could improve) and finally liberty (individual rights should be defended). While years pass, later they would take the biggest superpower of the time, Britain, and fight for liberty and equality in the American War of Independence. Then the Americans would create the first liberal or also democratic constitution which would keep serve the documents in a future. In France, the French Revolution will bore the "Declaration of Rights of Men and the Citizen" the basic and essential document of our lives and democratic societies. In conclusion history changes constantly and our life began to be formed.

- http://study.com/academy/lesson/the-enlightenment-thinkers-their-ideas.html

Here is the link of an Enlightenment video, where it explains how and where did it occurr and also all it´s ideas that the most important thinkers had of the period. It basically summeries what we have seen before.

- http://study.com/academy/lesson/political-thinkers-of-the-enlightenment.html

In this other link you will explore the ideas of major political thinkers who lived and wrote during the Enlightenment in all Europe. 

Liberalism, nationalism and conservatism

During this year we have learned the different "ISM"s there have been in history: liberalism, conservatism and finally nationalism. But actually what are does "ISM"s there have been along history?

Liberalism is a belief in agreat value of social and political change in history. We can also define liberalism as a movement in modern portestantism that emphasized the liberty and all the aspects of Christianity. 

Conservatism is a dominant political theories and ideologies that occur after the Enlightenment in the 17th century. 

Nationalism is based basically in the spirit of your own nation (culture, history, religion, language and your own territory).

These three "ISM"s had a great influence in history in Europe from 1815 to 1848.
The conservatives prefered the restoration of the royal families to the thrones and mantained the hierarchy that the lowered classes respected and obeyed their social which was superior. The conservatives (conservatism) supported the established church and they wanted to avoid the revolutionary ideas. That is why they say revolution brings chaos and insecurity at the end of the wars. Instead, on the other hand, the liberals (liberalism) were inspired by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution in 1789 and they keep proposing several ideas completely different from the conservatives ones: the consent of the government, the restrinction of the church and the state power, the republican form of government and the basic liberties of all the individuals. As you can see, they had a very different criteria in all aspects (politics, economy, liberty, religion...)  which made several revolutions in Europe form 1815 to 1848. 
In politics, the conservatives wanted  to mantain the hereditary monarchy and the liberals wanted a representative government and male suffrage.
In economy, the conservatives wanted to support mercantilism and the government involved in the business although the liberals supported free entreprise.
In terms of liberty, the conservatives believed in a strong and privileged land-owning aristocracy and the liberals demanded the freedom of assembly.
Finally talking about religion, the conservatives supported and official church recognised by the government and the liberals thought completely different from them,  they believed in the separation of church and including the state.
Later the demands for democracy (in the 19th century it means the bourgeoisie), mostly in the East of Europe the conservatives royal families like emperors and dynasties so that they soon can find out the independence and later on the self-government. Then it will be difficult to separate those demands because finally liberals (liberalism) and nationalists (nationalism) will find each other. 


Videos of the political Ideologies

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7qk8ZfuDJI  
(Liberalism)
- http://study.com/academy/lesson/conservatism-history-ideology-and-influence.html (Conservatism)
- http://study.com/academy/lesson/nationalism-grows-in-europe-timeline-events-impact.html 
(Nationalism)